The concept of Dharma in Indian Philosophical Aspect

Introduction:

Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha). ). Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of Dharma, and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of emancipation.

In this article, we will discuss on the concept of Dharma in Indian philosophical aspect. We will show how the Vedas define the term Dharma. As well as, we will mention how the Dharmasastra defines the term dharma, the school of Nyaya Vaisesika define the term Dharma. How the Buddhists explain Dharma and how the Jainas narrate the term Dharma.

Dharma is a multivalent term of great importance in Indian Philosophy and religions. In the context of Hinduism, it means one's righteous duty.1

In traditional Hindu society, dharma has historically denoted a variety of ideas, such as Vedic ritual, ethical conduct, caste rules, and civil and criminal law. It’s most common meaning however pertains to two principal ideals: that social life should be structured through well-defined and well-regulated classes (Varna), and that an individual's life within a class should be organized into defined stages called ashrama.

The word dharma translates as that which upholds or supports, and is generally translated into English as law. It is a derivation from Proto-Indo-Iranian root dhar- ("to fasten, to support, to hold"), in turn reflecting Proto-Indo-European root dʰer- ("to hold")], which in Sanskrit is reflected as class-1 root √dhṛ.2

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1. Carol Henderson Garcia Culture and customs of India. 2002, page 31
2. An article on Dharma, www.en.wikepedia.org

Etymologically it is related to Avestan √dar- ("to hold"), Old Persian √dar- ("to hold, have"), Latin frēnum ("rein, horse tack"), Lithuanian derė́ti ("to be suited, fit"), and Lithuanian dermė (agreement), darma ("harmony"). Classical Sanskrit word dharma would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus PIE dʰer-mo-s "holding", were it not for its historical development from earlier Rig-Vedic system.

Now we will discuss on Dharma according to various philosophical aspects.

Dharma according to Rig-Veda:

Dharma is the essence of truth and is indeed the eternal factor of strength and force by which human qualities develop in an individual. Dharma makes the action of the individual pure and pious whilst elevating the qualities of humanity and social awareness in an individual. Dharma inspires a person to possess and practice those virtues and values, which eventually make him a good human being.

In the Rig-Veda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles), figuratively "sustainer, supporter" (of deities), and semantically similar to the Greek ethos ("fixed decree, statute, law").

Dharma according to Mahabharata:

The worldview of the dharmic traditions is that while scriptures can be very helpful, Truth cannot be found by scripture alone but by a path of experiential realization and Self-discovery – and in that sense religion is not conclusive. It is also not separative and exclusive in the sense of dividing the world into believers and non-believers. The dharmic worldview is that there are many tribes throughout the world, and many teachers and teachings.

Thus in Mahabharata explains dharma as:-

धारणाद् धर्ममित्याहुर्धर्मो धारयते प्रजाः।
यत् स्याद् धारणसंयुक्तं स धर्म इति निश्चयः॥ महाभारतम् कर्णपर्वः ६९.५९


Dharma according to Mimamsa:-

Mimansa means a reverent study leading to a scientific quest of truth. This search for truth leads us to the solution of the great problems of life, and has engaged us for thousands of years. In Arthasamgraha, a famous book of Purva Mimansa, it is said:

“वेदबोधितेष्टसाधनताको धर्मः यथा यागादिः।”

Dharma is that which is described by the Vedas as the means for achieving the desirable; for example sacrifices etc.

Hence in the next line Logakshi Bhaskara narrates in Arthasamgraha:
“अथ को धर्मः किं तस्य लक्षणानि चेत्। उच्यते यागादिरेव धर्मः। तल्लक्षणं वेदप्रतिपाद्यः प्रयोजनवदर्थो धर्म इति।”

Dharma according to Smruti:

Among many sacred sm•uti scriptures the Manu sm•uti is very well known. In this sacred book Manu tried to describe the term Dharma in his own way. According to Manu the Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one’s own pleasure, they declare to be visibly the fourfold means of defining the sacred law.

Thus he says:
वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियम् आत्मानः।
एतच चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥ २.१२


Manu, in his book tried to mention the tenfold law of Dharma. In the sixth chapter of his book he wrote the ten virtues which a man must follow to maintain the moral code of Dharma.
The verse which indicates the tenfold law follows:

धृतिः क्षमा दमोऽस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः।
धीर्विद्या सत्यमक्रोधो दशकं धर्मलक्षणम् ॥ ६.९२

Contentment, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteouly appropriating anything, (obedience to the rules of) purification, coercion of the organs, wisdom, knowledge (of the supreme Soul), truthfulness, and abstention from anger, (form) the tenfold law.

Dharma according to Buddhist Philosophy

Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including "phenomenon", and "nature" or "characteristic”. Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind. In major sutras (for example, the Mahasatipatthana sutra), the dharma/citta pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind).Dharma means the source of things and Truth.

Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law is a "dhammic" person, which is often translated as "righteous".

"Dharma" may be seen as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Greek logos, seeing the dharma as referring to the "truth" or ultimate reality or "the way things are".

The Dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge (what one relies on for his/her lasting happiness). The three jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha (mind's perfection of enlightenment), the Dharma (teachings and methods), and the Sangha (awakened beings who provide guidance and support).

In this context, I would like to mention a verse from Sarvadarsana Samgraha of Maadhavacharya where the moral code of Bauddhas has been mentioned.

रागादिज्ञानसंतानवासनोच्छेदसम्भवा ।

चतुर्णामपि बौद्धानां मुक्तिरेषा प्रकीर्तिता ॥
कृतिः कमण्डलुमौण्ड्यं चीरं पूर्वाह्नभोजनम् ।
सङ्घो रक्ताम्बरत्वं च शिश्रिये बौद्धभिक्षुभिः ॥ (विवेक विलास, ८।२६५-७५)

Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nāgārjuna would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own.

Dharma according to Jainism:

According to Jainism, Universe and its constituents are uncreated and everlasting. These constituents behave according to the natural laws and their nature without interference from external entities. Dharma or true religion according to Jainism is vatthu sahāvo dhammo translated as "the intrinsic nature of a substance is its true dharma." Kārtikeyānupreksā (478) explains it as: “Dharma is nothing but the real nature of an object. Just as the nature of fire is to burn and the nature of water is to produce a cooling effect, in the same manner, the essential nature of the soul is to seek self-realization and spiritual elevation.

The word Dharma encompasses the following meanings in Jainism:
1. The true nature of a thing.
2. Rationality of perception, knowledge and conduct.
3. Ten virtues like forgiveness, etc. also called ten forms of Dharma.
4. Ahimsa – protection to all living beings.
5. Two paths – of the monks and the laity.
6. Dharma as a dravya (substance or a reality) (the principle of motion).


Samyak Darsana or rational perception is the rational faith in the true nature of every substances of the universe. Samyak Jnana or rational knowledge is the right knowledge of true and relevant knowledge of the reality, the tattvas. It incorporates the two principles of Anekantvada or non-absolutism and Syadvada or relativity of truth. Right knowledge must be free from three main defects: doubt, delusion, and indefiniteness. Samyak Caritra or rational conduct is the natural conduct of a (soul) living being. It consists in following austerities, engaging in right activities and observance of vows, carefulness and controls.
The following ten virtues are mentioned in Jaina philosophy to constitute true Dharma:-1.
1. Supreme forgiveness
2. Supreme humility
3. Supreme straightforwardness
4. Supreme truthfulness
5. Supreme purity
6. Supreme self-restraint
7. Supreme penance
8. Supreme renunciation
9. Supreme non-possessiveness
10. Supreme celibacy

In the Sarvadarsana Samgraha of Maadhavacharya it is said:

सर्वथावद्ययोगानां त्यागश्चारित्रमुच्यते ।
कीर्तितं तदहिंसादिव्रतभेदेन पञ्चधा ॥
अहिंसासूनृतास्तेयब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहः ॥

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1. Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice T.K. Tukol and Dr. K.K. Dixit (1993). Samaṇ Suttaṁ. New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. verse 84

Dharma according to Navya Nyaya Methodology:

The Nyaya system of Indian philosophy has two phases: (i) ancient and (ii) modern. The first phase marks the beginnings of the Christian era and continues almost up to 10th century A.D. The second phase though began around 10th cent. A.D, reached its best around 14th cent. A.D when the magnum opus of Gangesopadhaya, namely the Tattvacintaamani was written.

However, in this article we will discuss on Dharma according to the neo logicians’ point of view. Neo logicians define Dharma as property. According to them, which is contained, which resides, which exists is called a property. Everything exists somewhere or the other, therefore, everything is called a property. Whatever exists somewhere is called a property of that. Is this case they give the example a substance. In a substance reside universal, quality and action so universal, quality and action are properties of a substance.

In the threads i.e. parts exists ‘the whole’ substance, namely, cloth, therefore, the cloth, though a substance is called a property of threads. Also they showed the example of water and pot. ‘Water’ is contained in a ‘pot’ so ‘water’ is the property of pot.

According to the neo logicians the property primarily is of two types: (i) universal and (ii) an extraneous property.

Universal (jati) is that property, by which, substances of same type, though different of each other in appearance, are included in the same class. For example, human beings, belonging to different regions, different in shape, appearance and nature are included in the same class by the universal human-being hood.

Upadhi (the other type of property), is also of two types: divisible and indivisible. That which has part is divisible and that which cannot be divided into parts is called an indivisible property. 1

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1. A primer of navya nyaya language and methodology, Ujjwala Jha.
Thus Mahesh Chandra Nyayaratna wrote in his book Navya Nyaya BhasaPradipa:

“धर्मः ध्रियते तिष्टति वर्तते यः सः धर्मः। आकाशादिकं विना सर्व एव पदार्थाः यत्र कुत्रचिदपि वर्तन्त इति सर्व एव धर्माः इत्युच्यते। यत्र यः वर्तते सः तस्य धर्माः ।”

In another text he mentioned the types of Dharma:

“धर्मश्च प्रथमतः द्विविधः जातिरुपाधिश्च। येन परस्परं विभिन्नरूपमपि एकजातीयद्रव्याणामेकश्रेण्यान्तर्भावो भवति, स धर्मो जातिः। यथा विभिन्नदेशीया मनुष्या विभिन्नाकाररूपस्वभावा अपि एकया मनुष्यजात्या एकश्रेण्यामन्तर्भाविताः। जातिश्च सामान्यं नाम कणादोक्तश्चतुर्थः पदार्थः।
उपाधिरपि पुनः सखण्डोपाधिरखण्डोपाधिश्चेति द्विधः। खण्डेन (अंशेन) सह वर्तते इति सखण्डः। यश्च अंशतः विभक्तुं शक्यते स सखोण्डोपाधिधर्म इति यावत्।”

Till now we have discussed the term Dharma according to Navya Nyaya. Now we will mention how dharma is defined in Vaisesika Sutras.
In Vaisesika Sutrasar it is said:-

“यतोऽभ्युदय निःश्रेयससिद्धिः स धर्मः”

Through Dharma one can uplift oneself and can attend the Ultimate.

The relevance of Dharma on the personal level lies deeply in the welfare and happiness of an individual. It is deeply seated in his liberation from illusion, Maya or mental impurities which finally helping him in attaining a state of salvation or mukti. This is state of pure bliss. Dharma purifies one’s consciousness and sublimates the human instincts which impart the feeling of compassion and affinity towards other beings.

Conclusion:

In this way, we have discussed a vast topic on dharma in Indian philosophical aspect. First of all, we have mention how the Vedas define the Dharma and then we discussed the mimansa, the smriti, the Buddhist, the Jaina, and not last but least the Nyaya philosophical aspect on Dharma.

However, we have to remember that Dharma is universal; it transcends race, religion, gender and even species. Human beings have the unique ability to follow Dharma or negate it. Negation of Dharma inflicts misery on the planet while following Dharma brings fulfillment to life.

Time and time again different religions scriptures have defined the true meaning of Dharma. Dharma or religion as described in different scriptures is the innate, instinctive and universal laws. The observance of these laws enables humans to be contented and happy. Dharma supports in saving human being from ruin and suffering and lifts them up from the abyss of eternal despair.

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